Gladiators – Their Armor and Weapons

Gladiators were the men and women who fought for the entertainment of the Romans. At the start of their history, they were mainly slaves, criminals and prisoners of war. The first gladiatorial contest in Rome is believed to have been at the funeral of Brutus Pera in 264 BC.

As time went on it became a profession where a person could earn good money and fame. While these men and women could not earn citizenship, they could earn it for their children. Often they became so famous that they were like the movie or rock stars of today. They would be cheered and bet on during the fights and invited to the best homes as guests and even taken as lovers after the fights. It was not uncommon for the rich or governmental officials to hire gladiators as bodyguards during times of political unrest or if they felt threatened.

The person joining the ludi was required to give an oath of loyalty (sacramentum) to his master and his troupe. Gladiators pledged their lives to the gods of the underworld and promised acceptance of any humiliation, death, or torture ordered by the master.

Before entering the school they had to sign a contract stating what style they would fight, what weapons and armor they would use, what their pay would be for each fight, how often they would fight, and how long they would be a gladiator. After signing the contract all of his debts would be forgiven and he would get a signing bonus.

They would then get a full check up by a doctor to determine if they were fit for training and if they were pleasing to the eye. They could then be branded or tattooed on the face, hands and legs to let everyone know who their master was and to mark them as a gladiator. Tattooing was more common since scarring was not considered to be pretty unless they were scars of battle. This branding or tattooing was known as “stigma”. Gladiators then became part of the “familia gladiatoria”, family of gladiators. The gladiators could join a union to ensure proper burial if they died and to ensure their families got their money as well as compensation for their deaths. However, since they were considered to be outcasts or non–citizens, they had to be buried separately from the citizenry.

These men and women were given 3 good meals a day, great medical care and housing. It is believed by historians that they were actually overweight since the Romans believed that a layer of fat around the arteries would keep down the flow of blood. They were fed a diet of fruits, vegetables, barley and beans. Archeologist Fabian Kanz stated that gladiators were nicknamed hordearii which means “barley eaters”. Gladiators usually lived until age 30 which is about 5 years longer than the average citizen. It is commonly accepted that this was due to the medical care they received. They were usually housed in special barracks, where the troupe could all live together and be kept under guard. Many were housed under the arenas they fought in. They also received some of the best fight training in the world. On the other hand they also endured branding or tattooing, whipping, being chained, humiliation, possible physical mutilation or even death.

They would be kept and managed by their masters, called “lanistas” at a gladiatorial school until they were considered ready to enter the arena. While being a gladiator was a social disgrace, there was one profession lower than that – it was even considered to be lower than prostitution. It was a lanista, yet some ex-gladiators became lanistas.

The trainee gladiator was called a “novicious” (novice). Each fighting style was taught by a “doctores”. There would be a doctores secutorium, a doctores retiarii, etc. The training was done by the numbers and was well choreographed. Each phase was done over and over again until it became second nature to the gladiator. Some people actually complained they were too wooden and mechanical in their fighting.

They also had to be taught to die correctly. The opponent of a gladiator who died wrongly could be accused of murder and the dead gladiator would be disgraced and could lose all rights to a good burial as well as his monies and the compensations to his family. Once a novicious finished his training he would be called a “Tiro” until he had his first battle. A gladiator rarely trained in more than one style of fighting. Their training took a year to complete. Some died or were mutilated during training.

In times of great need, gladiators would help to train Legionnaires. But, since they were so indoctrinated with the “practiced” fighting styles and too mechanical in their fighting to be good Legionnaires (who had to adapt to different situations quickly), the training of Legionnaires by gladiators was considered to be a last resort.

Frequently troupes of gladiators would travel around to be rented out or sold to fight at a gala event. A traveling troupe was commonly housed in wagons. They were not made to march, their job was to fight, and the investment in their care and training was too much to risk. Gladiators who had fought well and were popular were allowed to ride horses or even in chariots. Walking could cause them to lose their fat layer and thus become harmful to their health in the arena.

It was not a good idea to attack a lanista or his troop since, even chained, a gladiator would defend his master and his troupe to the death. They were very proud of their racial heritage and made sure, one way or another, that the crowd knew what it was. They maintained a morale code that was second to none. They displayed courage, loyalty, a military discipline, and a unique attitude toward death. Many people believed that their code was even stronger than that of the Legionnaires.

Later in their history it was not uncommon for private citizens to own them and as long as most of the owners' income came from another source it was not a mark against their status, or a matter of scorn among their peers. These citizens would hire a lanista to train and care for their gladiators so it was much like owning a race horse today.

Sometimes the unpopular Roman Emperors would become paranoid. They feared these gladiators might be made into an army against Rome or as a force to overthrow them. Laws were passed making it illegal for anyone but the Emperor to own gladiators inside Rome. The Emperors gladiators were called “fiscales”. A very tight rein was kept over the gladiators and their movements were severely restricted. Roman citizens would not be allowed to talk to them without witnesses thus preventing any conspiracies to form.

During the time when everyone could own gladiators, the senate passed a law stating that no private citizen could own more than 640 gladiators. Traveling troupes were allowed outside of Rome and these could be owned by private citizens. Private ownership of gladiators kept in other places where there were regular events was also allowed. Since Rome was the center of the Empire it had to be protected at all costs and to allow more gladiators to be owned by an individual was allowing what might become a private army.

Many noblemen and free men who had lost their fortunes or their status would join the gladiators as a way to earn a living or as a way to regain their status. They were called “auctorati”.

Many noble and distinguished people wanted the enjoyment of participating in the arena as gladiators but only once in a while so they would rent a room at a school and train as they pleased. Most would wear helmets with full face visors to keep their identity secret. When someone was recognized they were the subject of public scorn and ridicule. Later, during the reign of Nero (around 63AD), there were so many of these amateur gladiators, it is believed that almost half of the gladiators were amateurs. Frequently they would pay to insure their victory.

Not only were the lanistas or masters paid for the gladiators, but the gladiators themselves were paid for each fight as well. If someone placed a large bet on a gladiator and he/she won, it was common practice to tip the gladiator and sometimes even the lanista.

If a gladiator lasted 3 to 5 years, depending on his terms of service, he/she could retire with status, money, freedom and fame. Many were even granted Roman citizenship as a reward later in their history.

Women joined the ranks of the gladiators as well and were trained the same as the men. The “amazones” who survived the arena to retirement were considered to be good marriage material. They were strong, wealthy and looked upon as good breeding stock. They most often fought at night without helmets no matter what style of armor they wore and were frequently bare–chested. In 200 AD, so many women were joining up that Septimius Serverus decreed that all women were excluded from joining the gladiators and disbanded those that were already fighting in the arena. Nero was known to have liked watching women fight in the arena and even forced the wives of Senators into the arena. Domitian was another Emperor who liked to watch the females in the arena. He would stage fights between women slaves. In 2001, a grave in London was uncovered that is still being fought over. Archeologists and Historians are still undecided whether it is the grave of a female gladiator or just a well–to–do female of 1900 years ago.

The fights became extremely popular entertainment for the Romans. A whole family would attend, even the small children. The family would “make a day of it”. Dust, blood and screaming fans, it sounds like some of the popular sports of today.

When a gladiator was wounded the crowd would go wild and scream “habet, hoc habet” meaning he has had it or “habet, peractum estrdquo; meaning he's had it, it's all over, or “mitti” meaning let him go and “lugula” meaning kill him. If a gladiator was defeated he or his opponent would raise one finger on his left hand asking for mercy. If mercy was granted, he would be carried away by his troupe to get medical attention. If mercy was denied then the winner would stab the loser in the neck with his weapon while the loser held onto his thighs in a symbol of submission. Then 2 men would come out to deal with the body. One would be dressed as Charon the ferryman on the River Styx, who would hit the body with a hammer. The other man would be dressed as Mercury and would poke the body with a hot poker made to look like a wand. The hitting and poking were to make sure the gladiator was dead. They would then drag the body away to be stripped of the armor which was then returned to the troupe and the gladiator would be taken to be buried. Each gladiator would be buried with his personal possessions unless he had requested that they be passed to someone. The union would insure his wishes were carried out.

The winner would stand and salute the crowd and the Emperor. He or she would receive a palm leaf and a golden gift such as a crown, a cup, a bowl, a coin or other small trophy as a reward for his win. These “trophies” were not part of his payment for fighting. These extras helped the gladiator become a wealthy individual. Some lanistas would try to confiscate these trophies to “pay for a gladiator’s care and feeding”. This was not acceptable and was not part of the contract signed by a gladiator. When it happened the troupe no longer owed allegiance to the lanista and could leave. Unfortunately this was sometimes hard to do when chained but word would get out and when it did the lanista would face charges. If the gladiators were slaves owned by the lanista then they had to buy their freedom before leaving. They could use their winnings and trophies to buy their freedom. The cost would be the price a lanista would receive for a death match. If a lanista refused then an arbitrator would settle the matter. No lanista wanted to lose his source of income or face a revolt so the gladiators kept what they won.

No gladiator was allowed to wear Roman armor. That was reserved for the Roman soldier and it was not wise to allow people to get the wrong impression or give them ideas they should not have.

The gladiators were allowed to pick the armor and weapons they were most comfortable with. There were several types of armor/weapon combinations. There were the Samnite, the Thracian, the Secutor, and the Retiarius, the Murmillones, and the Hoplomachus. Other types included the Essedarii, the Laquearii, the Sagittarrii, the Dimachaeri, the Velites, the Equites and the Galli. These were considered to be the exotics and were a rare treat in the arena. The Andabatae were considered to be the most bizarre.

Types/Styles of gladiators were:

• The Naumachiae were gladiators who participated in the recreation of naval battles on either man made lakes or a filled arena.
• The Bustuarii fought to honor a dead person at their funeral rites.
• The Samnite style consisted of a long oblong shield called a “scutum”, a greave or “ocrea” for the left leg made of metal or boiled leather, a wide leather belt reinforced with metal bands called a “balteus”, a helmet with a visor, crest and plume called a “galea” and last but not least a sword or “gladius”. They usually fought against the Thraeces. Samnites were also referred to as “Scutarii” after their shields. After a time, the Samnites became allies of Rome so this style became unpopular politically and was dropped.
• The Thracian style had tall greaves (ocrea) for the legs, a small square shield called a “parmula”, a helmet that was fully visored. The gladiator would carry a curved blade with a bend in it called a “sica”, it was similar to a scimitar. The Thraeces usually fought against the Murmillo. These gladiators were also referred to as “Parmularii” after their shields.
• The Hoplomachus were very similar to the Thraeces. They carried a lance and a short sword or a dagger. They had a small round shield, tall greaves for their legs, and the full visor helmet with a griffin on the crest and a plume of feathers on top or a single feather on each side. These were also called Parmularii. It is believed that these were the descendants of the Samnites.
• The Secutores or “pursuers” was usually bald and naked or with a small loin cloth. Like the Samnite, a single greave for the left leg, leather bands at the elbows and wrists called “fasciae”, a scutum (a large oblong or square shield). There was also a helmet that was either rounded or with a high visor. And lastly, a gladius or dagger was the weapon of choice. The Secutores were usually were matched against the Retiarii or the Murmillones. This is another class called Scutarii.
• The Murmillones were considered to be a heavy armor class. They wore loin cloth with a wide belt. Their right arm would be protected with linen wrappings called “manica”. They had a short greave for the left leg and a large curved rectangular shield. They carried a gladius as their weapon. Their helmet was unique, it had a high angular fish-like crest and broad curved brim. These were called Gali (Gaul) as well.
• The Gali used a lance. They wore a helmet and held a small Gallic shield. Some historians believe the Murmillones were the same as Gali.
• The Retiarius was the “fisherman” who wore a loin cloth, a wide belt to keep the loin cloth in place, a metal shoulder piece called a “galerus” on the left arm. The gladiator would carry a net, a dagger and a trident. They would fight barefooted. “Real men” did not choose this style, it was considered to be effeminate.
• The Retiarius Tunicatus were considered the lowest of the low when it came to gladiators. This opinion was held by both other gladiators and spectators. They would wear a tunic instead of a loin cloth. They are talked about as wearing a “disgraceful type of armament” and training in the “indecent part of the gladiator's school”. Many scholars believe these gladiators were gay. One of the reasons for this was an aristocrat named Gracchus who fought in this style married a male horn player. He was the bride. While this type of thing was accepted elsewhere it was not accepted in the arena. Historians tend to believe that this class was one of the few that were first in line for the “sine missus” to the death fights. Other gladiators believed men joined this class freely to be able to show their faces and their vanity regardless of the possible scandal and loss of status.
• The Laquearii only differed from the Retiarii in their weapons. They carried a harpoon and a lasso instead of a net. This was one of the exotics.
• The Essedarii fought from war chariots. Historians believe they were introduced to Rome by Julius Caesar after his invasion of Britain.
• The Sagittarii used a bow and arrow. They used a reflex bow that could send an arrow a great distance. They were considered to be a light armor class. This was another exotic.
• The Dimachaeri fought with two swords. They, too, were classed as exotic.
• The Equites were gladiators who fought on horseback. They wore scale armor and carried a mid–sized cavalry shield known as a “parma equestris”. They wore a brimmed helmet without a crest that had 2 feathers, a belted tunic without sleeves and a manica on their right arm. They usually fought only each other and were sometimes the start of the day’s events.
• The Praegenarii were another group of gladiators who would sometimes start the day’s events and get the spectators in the mood. They would fight with wooden swords and linen wrappings around their bodies. Music would play while they fought. The music would be light–hearted and they would use the cymbals, trumpets and a water organ (hydraulis). They were basically the arena clowns of their time.
• The Paegniarius had a whip and a club as weapons and used a shield strapped to their left arm. They were another exotic.
• The Velites have been reported as skirmishers who hurled missiles with a sling. They have also been reported as fighting with a spear attached to them by a leather thong for repeated throwing. Either way they fought on foot. These were also exotic.
• The Andabatae were gladiators whose helmets had a closed visor without any eye slits or holes so they were blind. They would start on horseback and after throwing their lance they would continue to stumble around looking for their opponent while swinging their sword and hoping to hit the opponent before they got hit themselves.
• There were also Scissores (“carvers”). They carried a special sword with two blades that looked like an open pair of scissors. It was used to trap an opponent’s blade and disarm them. This was, of course, another exotic.
• Provocatores (challengers) wore varying armor but mostly a belted loin cloth, a long greave on the left leg, a manica on the lower right arm, a visored helmet with no crest or plume, only a feather on each side. They carried a scutum and used a gladius. They were one of the few gladiators to wear a breastplate (cardiophylax). The breastplate was rectangular but eventually evolved into a crescent shape. They fought other Provocatores and Samnites. These were also considered exotic.
• The Rudiarius were experienced gladiators who had won their freedom but continued as gladiators, referees, trainers or helpers. When fighting, they would put on a good show.
• The Tertiarius were substitutes. They would be used if a fighter who was announced to fight was injured and could not fight. They were also used in 3–man fights.
• The Bestiarii were not really considered to be gladiators since they fought against wild beasts with either a spear or dagger.
• The last were the Venationes, who were the gladiators specializing in the wild animal hunts. While they were not really gladiators they were part of the games. They also put on animal shows like making an elephant do tricks or putting their arms in a lion’s mouth.

It was important to match the fighters according to their styles, fighting strategies, skills and weight. Since each had advantages and disadvantages, a light armor class would be matched against a heavier armor class. The heavier the armor, weapons and body weight the slower the gladiator, so they would be paired with a lighter faster class. Gladiators of the same style and weight would rarely fight each other. In gladiatorial combat it was not considered to be honorable to fight against either an unarmed opponent or one who was unfairly matched against you.

Historians believe that there were over a hundred training schools called “ludi” in the Roman Empire. Historians have found the training school in Pompeii and they believe there were others in Ravenna, Capua, and Sparta. There were four schools in Rome itself. They were Ludi Magnus (the most important), Ludus Dacus, Ludus Gallicus and the Ludus Matutinus. Ludus Matutinus was a school for gladiators battling wild animals. the Ludus Magnus had seats around the training grounds for people to come and watch the practices. There was even a box for the Emperor.

In 1993, archeologists, Fabian Kanz from the Austrian Archaeological Institute and Karl Grosschmidt from the Medical University of Vienna, Austria, uncovered a gladiator burial site in Turkey. It dates back to 2 A.D. and was located at the ancient city of Ephesus. Their findings include the fact that mortally wounded gladiators died not by the hand of another gladiator but by a hammer blow from Charon or rather, whoever played the part of Charon. Also, according to their findings, gladiators were not just fighting to kill, they were skilled fighters who rarely maimed or killed in combat. They state that the records of the time say that 90 percent of all gladiators survived their fights. While not all of their findings are published yet, they say that the code of conduct of the gladiator was very strict and did not allow for back stabbing. They were fighters, not killers, and as with most contact sports, accidents happened even with the best training. They also found evidence of extreme tooth decay which they attribute to the bland diet. Gladiators were only allowed to feast and have meat the night before combat. They believe that vinegar and ash drinks also helped contribute to the tooth decay.

Kanz and Grosschmidt also found evidence of a grave that they believe belonged to a famous gladiator turned trainer named Euxenius. It was dedicated by two young gladiators who might have been his students. Euxenius had had surgery during his lifetime and the surgical techniques used were those of Galen, the famous medico and surgeon. He might even have been the one who performed the surgery. They have discovered an incredible find and when all of the research is concluded it will tell us even more about gladiators.

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Sources:

• BBC
• National Geographic News
• Wikipedia
• Encarta
• Discover Magazine
• Independent News
• Encyclopaedia Brittanica
• Emperors and Gladiators by Thomas E.J. Wiedemann

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